HYDROGEN ¹

HYDROGEN ¹

            A Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element.  At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula H2. It is colorless, odorless, tasteless,non-toxic, and highly combustible. Hydrogen is the most abundant chemical substance in the universe, constituting roughly 75% of all normal matter.

          Stars such as the Sun are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. Most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water and organic compounds. For the most common isotope of hydrogen (symbol 1H) each atom has one proton, one electron, and no neutrons.

OVERVIEW

Latin Name : Hydrogenium

Atomic Number : 1

Atomic Symbol : H

Atomic Mass : 1.008

Group : 1

Period : 1

Year Discovered : 1766

CAS Number : CAS1333-74-0

Discovered by  : Henry Cavendish

           The simplest chemical element is hydrogen (H), a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and combustible gaseous substance. The nucleus of the hydrogen atom is composed of a proton with one unit of positive electrical charge and an electron with one unit of negative electrical charge. Under normal circumstances, hydrogen gas is a loose collection of hydrogen molecules, each of which is a diatomic molecule, or H2, made up of two atoms. In fact, the name hydrogen is derived from Greek words that mean "maker of water." This is the oldest important chemical feature of hydrogen that is known.

              Despite being the most prevalent element in the universe and being three times as abundant as helium, the next most frequent element, hydrogen only makes up roughly 0.14 percent of the weight of the Earth's crust. However, it is present in enormous amounts as a component of the water in oceans, ice caps, rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere. Hydrogen is a component of many carbon compounds and is found in all plant and animal tissue as well as in petroleum. Even though it is frequently said that carbon has more known compounds than any other element, the truth is that since hydrogen is a component of practically all carbon compounds and forms a wide variety of compounds with all other elements (with the exception of some noble gases), there are actually more known carbon compounds than any other element. hydrogen compounds may exist in greater amounts. 

            The production of ammonia, a combination of hydrogen and nitrogen (NH3), as well as the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide and organic molecules are the two main industrial uses for elementary hydrogen.

            The three known isotopes of hydrogen. The three isotopes of hydrogen have mass numbers of 1, 2, and 3, with mass number 1 being the most prevalent and also referred to as protium. Deuterium, often known as heavy hydrogen (symbol D, or 2H), an isotope of mass 2 with a nucleus made up of one proton and one neutron, makes up 0.0156 percent of the common mixture of hydrogen. With one proton and two neutrons in each nucleus, tritium (symbol T, or 3H) is the mass 3 isotope and makes up between 1015 and 1016 percent of all hydrogen.The fact that the hydrogen isotopes have notable variances in their characteristics justifies the practice of naming them differently.

     The physician and alchemist Paracelsus accidentally experimented with hydrogen in the 16th century after discovering that a combustible gas was produced when a metal was dissolved in acid. However, the gas was mistaken for other dangerous gases as carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.English chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish demonstrated in 1766 that hydrogen, also known as flammable air, phlogiston, or the flammable principle, differed from other combustible gases due to its density and the quantity that resulted from a specific amount of acid and metal. The discovery that water is produced when hydrogen is burned was confirmed by Cavendish in 1781, and Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry, invented the French name hydrogène, from which the English word hydrogen is derived.On the basis of previous theoretical work, Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer, a German physical chemist, and Paul Harteck, an Austrian scientist, demonstrated in 1929 that ordinary hydrogen is a mixture of two types of molecules, ortho-hydrogen and para-hydrogen. Hydrogen's properties can be theoretically computed rather readily due to its basic structure. As a result, hydrogen is frequently employed as a theoretical model for more complex atoms, and the results are qualitatively applied to other atoms.

 

Physical and chemical characteristics

The following table summarizes the key features of molecular hydrogen, H2. Because of the minimal forces of attraction between the molecules, the melting and boiling points are exceedingly low. The existence of these weak intermolecular forces is also demonstrated by the fact that as hydrogen gas expands from high to low pressure at ambient temperature, its temperature rises, but most other gases' temperatures fall. This suggests that at ambient temperature, repulsive forces between hydrogen molecules outnumber attractive forces; otherwise, the expansion would cool the hydrogen. In fact, at 68.6° C, attractive forces prevail, and hydrogen cools when allowed to expand below that temperature. The cooling effect gets so strong at temperatures below those of liquid nitrogen (196° C) that it is used to attain the liquefaction temperature of hydrogen gas itself.

Normal hydrogen and deuterium characteristics

 

                                                                                Normal hydrogen                                   Deuterium

 

Atomic number:                                                            1                                                                   1

Atomic weight:                                                      1.0080                                                        2.0141

Ionization potential:                                          13.595eV                                                   13.600eV                                                                                                                                                     

Electron affinity:                                                  0.7542eV                                                     0.754eV

                                                                                                                                                  

Nuclear spin:                                                                   1/2                                                             1

Nuclear magnetic moment :                               2.7927                                                       0.8574

(nuclear magnetons)

Nuclear quadrupole moment:                                0                                             2.77(10−27)cm²

                                                                                                                                                              

Electronegativity (Pauling):                                           2.1                                                  ~2.1

Combustion heat to water (g):                 −57.796kcal/mol                                −59.564kcal/mol

 

Molecular hydrogen                                              

Bond separation:                                                  0.7416 angstrom                          0.7416 angstrom

Ionization potential:                                               15.427 eV                                             15.457 eV

Solid density:                                                                0.08671cm³                                          0.1967cm³

                                                                                                                                         

Melting point:                                                      −259.20°C                                            −254.43°C

Heat of fusion:                                               28 calories/mole                             47 calories/mole

Liquid density:                                                   0.07099 (−252.78°)                    0.1630 (−249.75°)

Boiling point:                                                           −252.77°C                                          −249.49°C

Vaporization heat:                                          216 cal/mol                                          293 cal/mol

Critical temperature:                                   −240.0°C                                                     −243.8°C

Critical pressure:                                    13.0 atmospheres                             16.4 atmospheres

Critical density:                                               0.0310 g/cm³                                             0.0668 g/cm³ 

Dissociation energy (25°C):                         04.19 kcal/mol                                105.97 kcal/mol

             Infrared, ultraviolet, and visible light with wavelengths less than 1800 nm cannot pass through hydrogen. Because it has a lower molecular weight than any other gas, it diffuses quicker than any other gas because its molecules move at a higher velocity at a given temperature. As a result, hydrogen is the gas that distributes kinetic energy the fastest; it has the highest heat conductivity, for instance.

            The simplest molecule that can exist is a hydrogen molecule. Electrostatic forces hold its two protons and two electrons together. The assemblage can exist in several energy levels, just as atomic hydrogen.

Parahydrogen and orthohydrogen

       There are two known varieties of molecular hydrogen: ortho and para. Due to the protons' spinning speeds, these have different magnetic interactions. Both protons' spins are parallel and aligned in the same direction in ortho-hydrogen. The spins in para-hydrogen are antiparallel because they are aligned in opposing directions.The magnetic characteristics of the atoms depend on the connection between spin alignments. Since conversions between ortho and para molecules typically do not take place, ortho-hydrogen and para-hydrogen can be thought of as two separate variations of hydrogen.The two types could, however, interconvert in some circumstances. There are numerous techniques to find an equilibrium between the two types. One way to do this is by adding catalysts (such activated charcoal or different paramagnetic materials); another is to apply an electrical discharge to the gas; a third option is to heat the gas to a high temperature.

  The temperature affects the amount of para-hydrogen present in a mixture that has reached equilibrium between the two forms, as indicated by the following figures:

                                             -253.1°C   99.82%    -153.1°C    32.87%

                                             -223.1°C   76.89%      0°C          25.13%

                                             -193.1°C   48.39%     200°C       25.00%

          By bringing the combination into contact with charcoal at the temperature of liquid hydrogen, all  of the ortho-hydrogen is converted to basically pure para-hydrogen. On the other hand, because the concentration of para-hydrogen is never less than 25%, ortho-hydrogen cannot be generated directly from the mixture.

    The physical characteristics of the two types of hydrogen are marginally different. Para-hydrogen has a 0.10° lower melting point than a 3:1 mixture of ortho- and para-hydrogen. At 252.77 degrees Celsius, the pressure of the vapour over liquid para-hydrogen is 1.035 atmospheres, compared to 1.000 atmospheres for the vapour pressure of the 3:1 ortho-para mixture (one atmosphere is the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level under standard conditions, or approximately 14.69 pounds per square inch).Because para- and ortho-hydrogen have distinct vapour pressures, it is possible to separate these two types of hydrogen using low-temperature gas chromatography, an analytical technique that divides various atomic and molecular species according to their various volatilities.

Hydrogen's Reactivity

      When an energy equal to or more than the dissociation energy (i.e., the quantity of energy necessary to break the bond holding the atoms in the molecule together) is applied, one molecule of hydrogen dissociates into two atoms (H2 2H). Molecular hydrogen has a dissociation energy of 104,000 calories per mole, or 104 kcal/mole (mole is the unit of measurement for molecular weight, which is two grams in the case of hydrogen). For instance, when the gas comes into contact with a white-hot tungsten filament or when an electric discharge is created in the gas, sufficient energy is obtained. Atomic hydrogen will have a long lifetime if it is produced in a system at low pressure, such as 0.3 seconds at a pressure of 0.5 millimeters of mercury. Hydrogen atoms are highly reactive. also reacts with the majority of other elements to make hydrides, such as sodium hydride (NaH), and also reduces metallic oxides to form the metal in its elemental form. The recombination of hydrogen atoms into hydrogen molecules is catalyzed by the surfaces of metals (such as platinum) that do not combine with hydrogen to form stable hydrides and are consequently heated to incandescence by the energy that this reaction releases. 

Although molecular hydrogen can interact with a wide variety of substances and elements, the reaction rates are typically insignificant at ambient temperature. Due in part to the molecule's extremely high dissociation energy, this apparent inertness exists. However, the reaction rates are high at high temperatures.

    The equation H2 + Cl2 2HCl describes how a mixture of hydrogen and chlorine can react violently to produce hydrogen chloride when sparks or certain radiations are present. The equation 2H2 + O2 2H2O states that detectable rates of hydrogen and oxygen reactions only occur above 300 °C. These mixes, which range in hydrogen content from 4 to 94 percent, ignite when heated to 550–600 °C or when they come into contact with a catalyst, spark, or flame. Particularly strong explosions occur when hydrogen and oxygen are mixed 2:1. At high temperatures, almost all metals and nonmetals interact with hydrogen. Hydrogen converts numerous metallic salts and the oxides of the majority of metals to the metals at high temperatures and pressures. For instance, the reaction between hydrogen gas and ferrous oxide produces metallic iron and water (H2 + FeO Fe + H2O), while the reaction between hydrogen gas and palladium chloride produces palladium metal and hydrogen chloride (H2 + PdCl2 Pd + 2HCl). 

      Many transition metals, including scandium (atomic number 21 through copper number 29), yttrium (atomic number 39 through silver number 47), hafnium (atomic number 72 through gold number 79), and metals from the actinoid (atomic number 89 through lawrencium number 103) and lanthanoid (atomic number 57 through lutetium number 71) series, absorb hydrogen at high temperatures to form hard, alloy-like hydrides. Because in many instances the metallic crystal lattice simply extends to accommodate the dissolved hydrogen without undergoing any additional changes, these are frequently referred to as interstitial hydrides.

The Hydrogen bond

 A hydrogen atom is considered to be hydrogen bonded when it is simultaneously bound to two different electronegative atoms in some covalently bonded hydrides. The tiny, extremely electronegative atoms of fluorine (F), oxygen, and nitrogen form the strongest hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen atom joins two fluorine atoms to form the bifluoride ion, HF2. Each oxygen atom in the ice's crystal structure is surrounded by four other oxygen atoms, with hydrogen atoms positioned in the spaces between them. When ice melts, some of the hydrogen bonds are disrupted, which causes the structure to collapse as the density rises. Because hydrogen bonds play a significant part in defining how molecules are configured, they are significant in biology. Hydrogen bonds hold together the helical (spiral) shapes of some vast molecular chains, such as proteins. Hydrogen fluoride (HF), water (H2O), and ammonia (NH3) have boiling temperatures that are significantly higher than those of their heavier equivalents, hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and phosphine (PH3). This is due to extensive hydrogen bonding in the liquid state. Only at the higher boiling temperatures is thermal energy available to dissolve the hydrogen bonds and allow vaporization. 

          Strong acids like hydrochloric (HCl) and nitric (HNO3) have hydrogen that acts very differently. Hydrogen in the form of a proton, H+, totally separates from the negatively charged ion, the anion (Cl or NO3), when these acids dissolve in water, and interacts with the water molecules. The proton forms the oxonium ion (H3O+, also known as the hydronium ion), which is tightly linked to one water molecule (hydrated). The oxonium ion then forms species with formulae like H(H2O)n+, where the subscript n denotes the number of H2O molecules involved. The half reaction H+ + e 1/2H2 can be used to depict the reduction of H+ (reduction is the chemical process in which an atom or ion gains one or more electrons). A reduction potential can be used to represent the amount of energy required to cause this reaction. Conventionally, hydrogen is assumed to have a zero reduction potential, and all metals with negative reduction potentials—metals that are more easily oxidized than they are reduced, such as zinc (Zn2+ + 2e Zn, 0.763 volt)—can theoretically remove hydrogen from a strong acid solution: Zn + 2H+ Zn2+ + H2. Silver, for example, has a positive reduction potential of Ag+ + e Ag, + 0.7995 volt, making it inert to the aqueous hydrogen ion.

Hydrogen isotopes

Francis William Aston found in 1927 that the line for hydrogen corresponded to an atomic weight on the chemical scale of 1.00756 using the mass spectrograph he had created. This figure was different from the value based on the combining weights of hydrogen compounds, 1.00777, by more than the likely experimental error. Other researchers demonstrated that the discrepancy could be eliminated by assuming the presence of a hydrogen isotope with mass 2, with one 2H (or D) atom for every 4,500 1H atoms. By using its atomic spectrum to find deuterium in the byproduct of a distillation of liquid hydrogen, Urey and two associates discovered it in 1931. The electrolytic method of concentration was first used to create deuterium in its purest form. When an electrolyte solution, such as sodium hydroxide, is electrolyzed, the hydrogen produced at the cathode contains a smaller fraction of deuterium than the water, concentrating deuterium in the residue. When the solution is diluted to 0.00001 of its original volume, almost pure deuterium oxide (D2O, heavy water) is produced. 

       Additionally, deuterium can be concentrated through a variety of chemical exchange reactions, such as the ones listed below (where g and 1 denote the gaseous and liquid phases, respectively): When H2O(g) and HD(g) are combined, they produce HDO(g) and H2(g), HDO(g) and H2S(g), and NH3(l) and HD(g) produce NH2D(l) and H2(g).

In order to create tritium (T), deuterium (in the form of deuterophosphoric acid) was first bombarded with high-energy deuterons (deuterium nuclei) in 1935.

                                                                               ²D + ²D  →  ¹H  + ³T

         In trace amounts, natural water contains tritium. It is continuously created in the upper atmosphere through nuclear processes driven by cosmic rays. High-energy protons that make up cosmic rays interact with nitrogen atoms to create neutrons, which then interact with further nitrogen atoms to create tritium:

      

                                                                     ¹⁴N + ¹H → ¹⁴O + ¹n → ¹²C + ³T

This naturally occurring tritium eventually turns into water and travels to the Earth's surface as rain. Tritium is radioactive and decays to a very soft (low energy) negative beta particle (electron; the positive beta particle is known as a positron) and a helium-3 nucleus over a period of 12.5 years. A sample of water gradually loses tritium when it is stored due to radioactive decay. As a result, it is feasible to clarify specifics about water circulation among seas, the atmosphere, rivers, and lakes by testing the tritium content in water. Thermal neutrons react with lithium in nuclear reactors to produce tritium artificially:

                                                                                    ⁶Li + ¹n → ³T + ⁴He 

         The physical characteristics of the hydrogen isotopes' corresponding compounds vary slightly. The qualities of the waters given in the Table and the elements listed in the following Table demonstrate this distinction. The same is true of their kinetic and thermodynamic chemical characteristics. As isotopic tracers for studying chemical structures and reaction mechanisms, tritium and deuterium are both helpful. The value of a tracer typically derives from the fact that, despite allowing for detection due to differences in mass or radioactivity, it functions fundamentally in the same way as the element's regular atoms.

       The chemical differences between isotopes are minimal for the majority of elements since a change of one or a few mass units represents a very small portion of the overall mass. But for hydrogen, the different isotopes undergo chemical reactions at noticeably different speeds. These kinetic-isotope effects can be used to study reaction processes in great detail. Deuterium and tritium-containing molecules typically react at slower rates than their equivalent compounds made of regular hydrogen.

Physical properties of the waters

                                                                                       hydrogen oxide     deuterium oxide    tritium oxide

Density at 25°C in g/ml:                                      0.99707                   1.10451                             —

Melting point,°C:                                                            0                                     3.81                               4.49

Boiling point,°C:                                                          100                            101.41                           —

Temperature of maximum density,°C:         3.98                             11.21                          13.4

Maximum density in g/ml:                             1.00000                           1.10589                     1.21502

In biological systems, the substitution of deuterium for hydrogen can significantly change the processes' delicate balance. It has been demonstrated that neither plants nor animals can survive and grow in water with high concentrations of deuterium oxide.

In relation to thermonuclear (fusion) reactions, deuterium and tritium are of interest. Light nuclei, such as deuterium and tritium, collide and fuse during the detonation of a hydrogen bomb. The deuterium content of water provides the raw material for a virtually limitless supply of energy, should a way for managing such fusion processes be discovered, as it was done with the fission process of the earlier atomic bomb. Solar energy comes from such fusion processes.

In nuclear reactors, deuterium oxide serves as a moderator to slow but not significantly catch neutrons. It benefits from being a liquid that only marginally absorbs neutrons.

Production of and uses for hydrogen

    The catalytic steam-hydrocarbon process, which produces hydrogen and carbon oxides when gaseous or vaporized hydrocarbons are treated with steam at high pressure over a nickel catalyst at temperatures between 650° and 950° C, is the most significant industrial method for producing hydrogen. Depending on the intended use of the hydrogen, the major reaction products are processed further in a variety of ways. The noncatalytic partial oxidation of hydrocarbons at high pressures (CnH2n+2 + (n/2)O2 nCO + (n + 1)H2) is another significant method for producing hydrogen. For this process, you'll need a reactor walled with refractory, burners of specialized design to quickly mix the reactants, a cooling system to recover heat from the effluent gases, and a feed system for providing exact rates of fuel and oxygen. In contrast to the steam-hydrocarbon process, which is endothermic (heat absorbing), the latter is exothermic (heat creating).

       The two preceding methods are merged in a third procedure, known as the pressure catalytic partial oxidation method, to maintain the requisite reaction temperature without heating the catalyst bed outside. In a diffuser at the top of the catalytic reactor, hot oxygen is blended, heated, and combined with superheated steam and hydrocarbons. Over the catalyst, the oxygen and hydrocarbons engage in a reaction. Following that, the reactants travel through a nickel catalyst bed where the steam-hydrocarbon reactions practically reach equilibrium.

      Prior to 1940, the majority of the world's hydrogen was produced using coal or coke-based methods, with the main one being a water-gas reaction between steam and red-hot coke: H2O + C CO + H2. However, the amount of hydrogen produced by such techniques was somewhat little by 1970. The electrolysis of salt or sodium hydroxide in aqueous solutions had been producing relatively tiny amounts of hydrogen for many years. The electrode reaction was H2O + e 1/2H2 + OH. In the lab, hydrogen is formed by the interaction of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid with an active metal, such as zinc, although this hydrogen typically contains trace amounts of volatile hydrides produced by metal impurities, such as arsine (AsH3) and phosphine (PH3).

                By bubbling the gas mixture through a solution of a potent oxidizing agent, such as potassium permanganate, these volatile contaminants may be eliminated.

     Diffusion-based hydrogen separation from carbon monoxide synthesis gas has been commercialized. Hydrogen travels through the walls of bundles of microscopic hollow polyester fibers as the gas is forced through them.

       The manufacturing of ammonia, which uses nearly two-thirds of the hydrogen produced globally, is the world's largest single usage of hydrogen. The so-called Haber-Bosch process produces ammonia via the reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen in the presence of a catalyst at pressures and temperatures of around 1,000 atmospheres and 500 degrees Celsius, respectively: N2 + 3H2 2NH3. The CO + 2H2 CH3OH process uses a significant quantity of hydrogen to create methanol. This procedure is carried out in the presence of certain mixed catalysts combining chromium oxide and zinc oxide at pressures ranging from 275 to 350 atmospheres and temperatures between 300 and 375 C.

        The catalytic hydrogenation of organic molecules is another important use of hydrogen. Margarine and vegetable shortening are made by hydrogenating unsaturated vegetable and animal oils and fats. Aldehydes, fatty acids, and esters are converted to their corresponding alcohols using hydrogen. As in the conversion of benzene to cyclohexane and of phenol to cyclohexanol, aromatic substances can be reduced to their corresponding saturated counterparts. Nitro compounds are quickly converted into amines.

     Hydrogen is favored as a propellant for nuclear-powered rockets and spacecraft and has been utilized as a primary rocket fuel for combustion with oxygen or fluorine. The direct reduction of iron ores to metallic iron as well as the reduction of tungsten and molybdenum oxides to metals are two further growing uses of hydrogen. In the production of magnesium, the annealing of metals, the pouring of specialized castings, and the cooling of big electric motors, hydrogen (reducing) atmospheres are used. In the past, hydrogen was employed to fill lighter-than-air aircraft like balloons and dirigibles, but nowadays, helium is more frequently used due to its inflammability. However, hydrogen was utilized to inflate the barrage balloons that were used in England during World War II. Low temperatures are created in the lab using liquid hydrogen.

Analysis

               Atoms emit light at specific wavelengths that show up as lines in the spectrum when they are excited, such as during an electric discharge. The atomic spectrum can be used to identify an element since the wavelengths of its atomic spectral lines are distinctive to that element. The hydrogen spectrum is the most basic of all such spectra. A mathematical equation for hydrogen spectral lines' wavelengths was found in 1885 by Johann Jakob Balmer, a Swiss mathematician and secondary school teacher. Nine hydrogen spectral lines had been identified in the laboratory, and five more had been captured on camera in the spectrum of the star Sirius. The formula for wavelengths, lambda (), in angstroms was = 3645.6 [m2/(m2 4)], where m was given the following values: 3, 4, 5, etc. The Danish scientist Niels Bohr did not provide a theoretical foundation for this empirical relationship until 1913 in his theory of atomic radiation.

      Similar to how a spinning top precesses in a gravitational field, the proton's spinning motion endows it with magnetic qualities and leads it to precess in the applied magnetic field. A proton's local electrical environment and the strength of the applied magnetic field affect the frequency at which it precesses. Resonance absorption happens when hydrogen compounds are exposed to electromagnetic waves of a specific frequency with magnetic field intensities that are different for each structurally (magnetically) distinct proton in the molecule. Because the absorption peak intensities are related to the number of hydrogen atoms of each sort, proton magnetic resonance allows for the differentiation of the structural types of hydrogen atoms that are present. However, because of the magnetic interaction between the proton magnetic moments, the absorption peaks frequently divide. Data from proton magnetic resonance measurements is used to study chemical structure.

     One way to figure out a substance's total hydrogen concentration is to totally oxidize it in a stream of pure oxygen, which combines with the hydrogen to create water vapor. A potent dehydrating agent, like magnesium perchlorate, is then used to pass through the produced vapours, absorbing the water. It is possible to determine how much hydrogen was oxidized by calculating the rise in weight of the desiccant-containing absorption tube.To measure the hydrogen gas itself, the water vapour from the oxidation may be reduced to hydrogen gas by passing it over hot uranium metal; the hydrogen will then be measured in a straightforward device known as a gas buret. Gaseous hydrogen or hydrogen compounds may be oxidized by passing them over hot copper oxide, and the resulting water can then be collected and weighed and the amount of hydrogen calculated.

          By adding measured amounts of a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide, NaOH, until the acid is neutralized and using an indicator to establish the end point, it is possible to identify very acidic hydrogen atoms in solutions (such as those found in compounds like HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, etc.). H+ + OH+ + H2O is the overall reaction. By reacting with the methyl Grignard reagent, CH3MgI, weakly acidic hydrogen atoms (such those connected to the oxygen in ethanol, C2H5OH, and those attached to the nitrogen in acetamide, CH3CONH2) can be transformed into methane (measured in a gas buret). By reacting with an aqueous acid, hydridic hydrogen atoms (such as those found in NaBH4, LiH, etc.) can become molecular hydrogen, which can then be detected in a gas buret.

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